Linguistic

Linguistic-is scientific study of a language so it is based on evidences.
Saussure- is a father of linguistic (early 20th century; Switzerland) he said that language is a system of systems.
System means something that consist more than one element; many different elements
Language- is a system of signs; symbolic system, a cognitive system(a kind of knowledge that we have), is conventional( it’s the social agreement), it’s system of communication; human language is very complex.
Signs-written or spoken
Symbol-a form that means what it normally not(but have an agreement); it is something that stands for sth else. Letters are linguistic symbols because they stands for sounds.
ORIGINS of LANGUAGE:
1.The divine source speculation (speculation because it’s not based on facts)
2. The natural-sound source speculations(3)
-“bow-wow theory”
-the cries of emotion speculation
-“yo-heave-ho” “theory”
THE DIVINE SOURCE speculation says that language is given by god/s and implying that all people are able to communicate in that language without necessity of learning it(we are born with the language) (in the sense of general ability to learn humane language)
THE NATURAL-SOUND SOURCE speculations:
THE “BOW -WOW” “theory”-(because it seems to be based on some evidences) says that language originated in onomatopoeic expressions, it means that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.
THE CRIES OF EMOTION speculation says that language originated in a form of expression which include feelings such as pain, anger or joy.
THE “YO-HEAVE-HO” “theory” says that language originated in sounds of people who need to coordinate their actions. Such sounds may have had influence on language creation.
INTERACTIONS AND TRANSACTIONS
Functions of language: - interactional function(interact with each other socially or emotionally); -transactional function (communicate knowledge, skills and information)
DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING
Motivated=natural connection between the form and the meaning of it eg. Kukuryku-imitiates the real sound.
Arbitrary-cos czego nie da sie wytlumaczyc bo po prostu tak jest.
1.Pictografic writing (Pictures)
2.Ideografic writing (less motivated than pictographic; forms become more conventional and arbitrary)
Pictures -> pictograms -> ideograms

3.Logografic writing-word writing-Sumerian writing system, the first writing system.
Cuneiform writing-means ’wedge-shaped’-klinowe
Logogram
4.Phonograapfic writing:
-SYLLABIC writing is a writing system employing a set of symbols which represent the pronunciation of syllables;
-ALPHABETIC writing is a system of symbols which can be used to represent single sound type in a language; alphabetic writing develop from syllabic writing.
SYLLABARY-syllabic writing system
PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE:
-DISPLACEMENT is a property of human language which allows the users of language to refer to the past and future time, and to other locations. THERE are 3 types of displacement: -IN SPACE (animals can’t talk about place that is not here, and human can); -IN TIME(strictly related to displacement in space; ability to talk about the past and future); -IN REALITY(ability to talk about things that are abstract, theoretical, fiction, eg. God, religion, lying)
ARBITRARINESS-arbitrary relationship with the object signs are used to indicate.
PRODUCTIVITY=CREATIVITY-it is a feature of all languages that novel utterances are continually being created. It means that we can create infinite number of sentences in a language.
Fixed reference-in animals communicating system each signal is fixed as relating to a particular object or occasion.
CULTULAR TRANSMISSION is a process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next.
Language is innate=inborn(requires specific brain, system of knowledge, in this case human language)
DISCRETNESS means that each sound in the language is treated as discrete. ; (nieciagly)=not continuous
DUALITY –language is organized at two different levels
PHONETICS-the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds; 3 types of phonetics: -articulatory phonetics[how speech sound are made]; -acoustic phonetics[physical properties of speech as sound waves ‘in the air]; -auditory phonetics[perception, via the ear” of speech sounds]
PLACE OF ARTICULATION-the location, inside the mouth, at which the constriction takes place.
CONSONANT SOUND-to describe the place of articulation of most consonant sounds, we can start at the front of the mouth and work back. We can also keep the voiced-voiceless distinction.
VOWELS-while the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in the vocal tract vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air. they are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongue influences the ‘shape’ through which the airflow must pass.
CONSONANTS:
BILABIALS-sounds formed using both upper and lower lips.
LABIODENTALS-sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip.
DENTALS-formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. INTERDENTAL-tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth.
ALVEOLARS-formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth.
ALVEO-PALATALS-sounds which are produced with the tongue at the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge.
PALATAL-one sound which is produced with the tongue in the middle of the palate is the [y] sound.
VELARS-sounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum.
GLOTTALS-sound produce without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. The ‘glottis’ is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx.
Labio-
Bilabial dental Dental Alveolar
-V +V -V +V -V +V -V +V
Stops p b t d
Fricatives f v s z
Affricates
Nasals m n
Approximants w l,r

Alveo-
Palatal Velar Glottal
-V +V -V +V -V +V
Stops k g
Fricatives
Affricates
Nasals
Approximants y h

MANNER OF ARTICULATION-describe how sounds are articulated; the way they are pronounced.
STOPS-sounds that are produced by some form of complete ‘stopping’ of the airstream and then letting it go abruptly.; results from a blocking or stopping effect on the airstream is called a stop=plosive; eg. [t] a voiceless alveolar stop.
FRICATIVES-involves almost blocking the airstream, and having the air push through the narrow opening. as the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives.
AFFRICATES-combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release which causes some friction.
NASALS-when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose.
APPROXIMANTS-articulation is strongly influenced by the following vowel sound. ‘Glides’=’semi-vowels’-they are produced with the tongue moving or ‘gliding”, to or from the position of a nearby vowel.
GLOTTAL STOP- occurs when the space between the vocal cords is closed completely, very briefly, and then released.
FLAP-is produced by the tongue tip being thrown against the alveolar ridge for an instant.
VOWELS-to talk about the place of articulation, we think of the space inside the mouth as having a front versus back and a high versus a low area., sound is made with the front part of the tongue in a raised position.
Front Central Back
High i

u
Mid


Low

PHONOLOGY-is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. .Because of the theoretical ststus, phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sound in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds; phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language which allows us to distinguish meaning in the accrual physical sounds we say and hear.
PHONEME-each one of that meaning –distinguishing sounds in a language.; single sound type which came to be represented by a single symbol.; contrastive property
Phoneme is an abstract unit or sound type.
PHONES-different versions of phoneme.
ALLOPHONES-a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme
The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning, but substituting allophones only results in a different pronunciation of the same word.
CONSONANT CLUSTER
SYLLABLE-ONE VOWEL
ONSET
CODA
RIME
CO-ARTICULATION-the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next.
CO-ARTICULATION EFFECTS[2]:
-ASSIMILATION-the process when two phonemes occur in the sequence and some aspect of one phoneme I taken or ‘copied’ by the other.
-ELISION-‘omission’ of a sound segment which would be present in the deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation